THE STRUCTURAL USES OF “IT”

By Nguyen Tuan Kiet
MAL Program
La Trobe University, Australia

In English, both spoken and written, it is usual to use personal pronouns (I, you, we, they, he, she, it) when the context is already understood, or could easily be understood by reading the sentences that follow. For example, one does not normally use the word ‘she’ to refer to somebody if the person reading or hearing the sentence does not know who his or her partner is referring to. It is because a pronoun is defined as “a word which may replace a noun or noun phrase.” (Richards, J., Platt, J. & Platt, H. 1997). In the most straightforward cases, he is used for males, she is for females, and it for entities which are neither male nor female (Huddleston, R., Pullum, G. K., Bauer, L, et al, 2002).

If asked what part of speech the word it is, almost all of the foreign learners of English and even many native speakers would say it is simply a personal pronoun. In reality, especially in speaking English, this word is used in different ways. The British joke below demonstrates the many varied uses of it.

Early one morning a prisoner, who was accused of taking drugs, spoke to his guard:

“Morning Sir. It’s a nice day for it, isn’t it?”
The guard replied, “You’re not getting it. You’re in prison.”

The prisoner used it three times. The second it is a pronoun in the normal sense because it stands for ‘whatever you want to do” (e.g. swimming, resting, shopping, etc.). In the guard’s statement You’re not getting it, there is one it. This it is spoken more strongly than it number 2 of the prisoner, but it is also a pronoun. Its meaning is for drugs or having drugs.

Obviously, the connotations, means, understandings, and general usage of it are endless and in some ways, very confusing. This wondrous word can allude to enthusiasm, awe, excitement, surprise, candor, need, sadness and a host of other feelings and/or emotions. In addition to these, dependant on the facial expression, syntax, tone of voice and body language, it can be humorous, explicit, sarcastic, derogatory, informative, descriptive, explicative, explanatory and even linguistically challenging.

AS we all can know, the positioning of it in a sentence can completely alter the meaning of that sentence. It definitely contributes to sentence structure a lot more than many other words of the English language. In today’s modernistic communication systems, the usage of it has changed over the years as many other words have even been derived from or deleted with the modern speech idioms of both written and spoken English. For instance, “Wanna go with me?” effectively means: “Do you want to go with me? However, the context of it in its simpler form has remained relatively unchanged. Primarily it is used as a general descriptive or replacement word. For example, “Look at it run!” “Watch it Mate!” “What is it?” “Where is it? I can’t find it.” It generalizes discussions and removes specificality of subject matters.

The functionability of it is amazing and thus needs to be thoroughly understood to realise its full potential. Therefore, in this essay, by the structural uses of the word it, I would like to discuss those uses in which its principal function is to contribute to the structure of the sentence rather than to take the place of a noun; such uses are of at least three different major types, which may be distinguished and described syntactically and semantically as expletive, anticipative, and discriminative, respectively. Accordingly, I will explore some typical examples of how it is used in everyday contexts.

To begin with, consider the following sentences:

i) It was raining. The pronoun in this sentence is expletive, just filling in an empty space. In fact, the word expletive is a meaningless term present for merely a grammatical purpose. In saying It was raining, the it does not have to stand for anything. In other words, it serves as the formal but more-or-less meaningless subject of a verb that would otherwise be without a subject.

ii) It is impossible to know how many students will pass the examination. The pronoun is anticipative (also called “preparatory it” (Alexander, 1993, p.14)). It anticipates or represents in advance what can be known, that is, the infinitive to know. The true meaning is that To know how many students will pass the examination is impossible or It, namely ‘to know how many students will pass the examination’ was impossible. (To know how many students will pass the examination is in apposition to it).

iii) It was James that helped me most. Here the word It is discriminative. Particular prominence and importance is given to the word James and thereby to discriminate between James and others. It was James - not Jack or Pete or Mike - that helped me most. Practically the same meaning could have been conveyed in a longer version by saying ‘The one that helped me most was James’ or (with emphasis on the name) ‘James was the one that helped me most.’

To expand on each of the above, there is necessity to look at working examples and how they are categorised.

1. The expletive use of it

When it is expletive, as in the sentence It was raining, this is generally used and associated with either of atmospheric conditions, of time or distance, or of the general situation (or some part or aspect of it). Very often, this is the obligatory use of it, and this word is similar to existential there or a “space-holder” (Hopper, Gale, Foote, & Griffith, 2000, p.63). There is no corresponding alternative pattern as in the following examples:

a) Atmospheric conditions: ‘How dark it was at five o'clock this morning!’ ‘I hope it will be fine tomorrow.’ ‘The rainy season is finished I wonder if it will rain at all in the next three months?’

b) Time or distance: ‘It was past midnight when they arrived home.’ ‘It is three years since we met.’ ‘It is just a month to Christmas.’ ‘It takes a long time from Hochiminh City to Hanoi by train.’ ‘It is about 900 kilometers from Saigon to Danang.’

c) The general situation: ‘It can't be helped.’ ‘As it happened, they had gone out for the day.’ ‘If it hadn't been for you, I should have been killed.’ ‘It's my turn now.’ ‘If it were not for the expense, I would go with you.’ Also, similarly it can also be used in such expressions as ‘so it seems’ and ‘as it were’, for example, ‘The problem cannot be solved, or so it seems.’ ‘They continue climbing the mountain, difficult as it was in the cold weather.’

Another way that it can be used in the expletive format is as a word-relator to other parts of a sentence. For instance, it can be the subject of a verb, as in each of the examples already given, or it can be the object of a verb or of a preposition, as in the following examples. ‘I wanted it to rain (or to be fine).’ ‘.... as if the credit of making it rain were all her own.’ (Jane Austen.) ‘Tom was hard put to it to find an excuse.’ Or, ‘He is having a really hard time just now, I just hope and pray he can stick it out till better times come along.’ This use of it generalizes a multitude of subjects.

Moreover, an expletive it is sometimes used in the so-called nominative absolute construction. ‘At two miles' distance - it being then about two o'clock - I saw that she hoisted British colours.’ Accordingly, the possessive form its is also expletive. ‘There is not much likelihood of its raining tonight.’ ‘I didn't dream of its being so late; did you?’

According to Downing & Locke (2002, p.37), as regards their semantic features, the situations expressed by such sentences do not contain any participant. Syntactically, English requires the presence of it in such situations in order to make a clear distinction between declaratives and interrogatives.

2. The anticipative use of it

It as an anticipative pronoun is usually distinguished from the expletive use of it in expressions of time, atmospheric conditions and distance. The anticipative use of it is often heard and seen when people are speaking and writing English. The word or group of words which it anticipates may be either infinitival or gerundial or clausal. Take the following examples (with the anticipated words printed in italics):

(a) Infinitival: ‘Under such circumstances it is easy to be led astray.’ ‘In any case, it is extremely difficult to compare real wages in different countries.’ ‘It is best to outline the major stages of the narrative before setting down any actions.’ (Ferrare, 1989, p.199)
(b) Gerundial: ‘It's no good telling me now!’ ‘It's of no use my talking to you about tumblers.’ (Dickens)
(c) Clausal: ‘I think it is obvious to us all that our life is a state of continual tension between freedom and authority.’ ‘It makes all the difference in the world whether one puts truth in the first place or in the second.’ ‘Does it matter what a man believes?’

Here it is used in a lead-in or a beginning. In other words, the subject can be moved out of its initial position, and it that is “lexically empty” (Hopper, Gale, Foote, & Griffith, 2000, p.9) takes its places. The real or grammatical subject appears later in the sentence. In this case, the subject is called “delayed subject” (Semmelmeyer, 1963). It is commonly used in both speech and writing, especially when the subject is longer than the complement and is better placed at the end of the sentence, in accordance with the informational and stylistic principle of “end-weight” or “extraposition” (cited in Downing & Locke. 2002, p.37 & p.261). One example of this principle can be appreciated in the following extract, which consists of many long subjects:

In spite of the campaigns of a few thousand left-wingers, it is fairly certain that the bulk of the English people were behind Chamberlain’s foreign policy. More, it is fairly certain that the same struggle was going on in Chamberlain’s mind as in the mind of ordinary people. His opponents professed to see in him a dark and wily schemer, plotting to sell England to Hitler, but it is far likelier that he was merely a stupid old man doing his best according to his very lights. It is difficult otherwise to explain the contradictions of his policy, his failure to grasp any of the course that were open to him.

George Orwell, England Your England

The anticipative it, as with the expletive it, might be the subject of a verb as in each of the examples already given or it might be the object of a verb or a preposition. For example, ‘He found it necessary to resign.’ ‘You may depend on it that nothing will be done until the contract is signed.’ ‘I feel that it is not detrimental to anyone to have true freedom of speech. It is a form of educational transference of knowledge. All humans have the natural ability to think. The values of their comments are directly associated to their level and attenuation of education in all aspects of this glorious word. It is correct that this is true, globally.’

In addition, like the expletive it, an anticipative it is occasionally found in the nominative absolute, e.g. ‘The storekeepers at Levuka and Suva did a lively trade in mourning goods, it being considered the correct thing to dress in black according to our own abominable fashion.’ Also, the possessive form its is anticipative as in ‘On its being formally made known to Elizabeth that the sentence had been executed on the Queen of Scots, she showed the utmost grief and rage.’(Dickens). ‘As to its being wrong to dance on Church property, I disagree entirely.’

It is a logical necessity that as with all aspects of grammar and word use there are naturally border-line cases where it can be either, both or even combined anticipative or substitutional (a normal pronoun that stand for a noun). Take a typical example:

‘It dragged on and on for years, this great debate.’ ‘It eventually sorts out the men
from the boys, this harsh militaristic style of training.’

Actually, the expletive, anticipative, and substitutional forms of it are not to be seen as rigidly separated. Above are some transitional examples, particularly concerning the anticipative it, in which the word can be viewed as a substitutional (a normal pronoun) or anticipative, or both of these. In sentences of this type, however, the anticipative pronoun does not have to be it: it may be some other pronoun, e.g., he, they, we, or us. ‘He is a peculiar fellow, this new assistant of ours.’ ‘They grow up too rapidly, these little ones.’ ‘We generally win through in the end, we Australians.’ ‘I think it would do us all good - you and me and Bob - to talk about Mary.’

3. The discriminative use of it

There is one more usage of it, as a discriminative pronoun. In this form of usage, the words and/or groups of words it associates itself with can be prominent in: (a) the subject of a verb; (b) the object of a verb; (c) the object of a preposition; (d) an adverbial adjunct.

(a) ‘It was James that helped me most,’ meaning Fred helped me most, and James is the subject of the verb;
(b) ‘It is Anna that I want’, meaning I want Anna, in which Anna is the object of a verb;
(c) ‘It was the other thing they were looking at,’ meaning They were looking at the other thing, and the other thing is the object of the preposition;
(d) ‘It was in Hanoi that the first important contests took place,’ meaning The first important contests took place in Hanoi, where in Hanoi is an adverbial adjunct (qualifying ‘took place’);
(e) ‘It was that he was President not secretary,’ meaning He was President, and not secretary which is a subjective compliment.

It is clear that in any case, introducing the discriminative it affects certain words or word groupings into association with the verb to be (usually in the form of is or was), either as its complement, as in example (a), (b), (c), and (e) or as its adverbial adjunct, as in (d). Thus, it is this rather than the word it itself that gives the word (or group of words) its peculiar “prominence” (Downing & Locke. 2002, p.238).

Below are the following examples believed to be corresponding to the sentence ‘I saw you with Cameron.’

(a) It was I that saw you with Cameron.
(b) It was you that I saw with Cameron.
(c) It was Cameron that I saw you with.
(d) It was with Cameron that I saw you.

Sometimes the word or group of words that is thus brought into prominence is interrogative, as in the following examples:

a) ‘Who was it that ran away?’ that is, Who ran away? where who is the subject of the verb;
b) ‘What is it that you want?’ that is, What do you want? in which what is the object of the verb;
c) ‘Which picture was it that they were looking at?’ that is, Which picture were they looking at?, where which picture is the object of a preposition;
d) ‘When was it that he was appointed?’ that is, When was he appointed? in which when is an adverbial adjunct (qualifying was appointed);
e) ‘What was it that they called her?’ that is What did they call her? in which what is the objective complement of did call.

As has been mentioned previously, the introduction of the discriminative it brings a certain group of words into association with is or was either as its compliment or its adverbial adjunct, and in this way who, what, where, which, when are given a peculiar prominence. This discriminative use of it also explains the use of it (referring to a person) in such conversations as the following:

‘There's a man at the door.’
‘Who is it?’ / ‘Go and see who it is.’
‘It is the electrician.’

These last three sentences are condensed forms of Who is it that is at the door?, Go and see who it is that is at the door, and It is the electrician that is at the door.

Similarly, when in answering a telephone call, one asks Who is it? and the person at the other end answers It's Jane. These sentences in full would be Who is it that is speaking? and It is Jane that is speaking.

In other words, in all such sentences I regard the word it, not as substitutional (standing for a noun), but as structural (as discriminative) in fact.

As regards the use of the possessive of its in the discriminative sense, consider the following example: ‘While settling this point, she was suddenly roused by the sound of the door-bell; and her spirits were a little fluttered by the idea of its being Colonel Fitzwilliam himself.’ (Austen.) It is accepted wildly that the meaning is ‘by the idea of its being Colonel Fitzwilliam himself that was at the door’(which is another way of saying ‘by the idea that it was Colonel Fitzwilliam himself that was at the door’).

Sometimes the word or group of words that is brought into prominence is given still greater prominence by being placed first, that is, before the discriminative it). ‘He it is that shall tread down our enemies.’ (Psalm 60.12.) ‘Through this wild country it was that Mark and his company pushed their way.’ ‘Her curiosity it was that had kept her alive.’ ‘Through this wild country it was that Sir Nigel and his company pushed their way. (Conan Doyle.)

In all cases we have multiple use of the word it from all aspects: expletive, anticipative, discriminative, substitutional, and interrogative. The general use of the word it is constructive. In other words, it plays an important part of the structure of the communication. This is true in any format of the word. As a final example of multi-use of it, taking note of the following examples would be appreciated highly: ‘I have it on good authority that it was Thomas who did it’. The first is anticipative, the second is discriminative and the third is substitutional. Or, in the sentence ‘It seems clear that he had a hard time of it,’ the first it is anticipative, and the second expletive.

4. Analysis of That after a discriminative it

Up to this point, the above discussion has described the uses of it in the belief that this wondrous word contributes to the sentence structure rather than to stand for a noun. However, such discussion will not be sufficient if an interpretation of the word that going after a discriminative it is not made. How are we to interpret the word that as used generally after the word or group of words that is brought into prominence by this use of it?

Except it in examples (d) of section 3, it is evidently a relative pronoun. Sometimes, who(m) or which is used instead. For instance, ‘When all men were liable to be hanged for stealing a sheep, it was the starving ones who went to the gallows.’ ‘He it was, apparently, who took the lower Severn valley from Wessex.’ ‘This it was which gave him such faith and fearlessness in his work.’ Nevertheless, that is more usual. However, what is the antecedent of this relative pronoun? Logically, it would seem, the antecedent of that in ‘It was James that helped me most,’ is it, the meaning being ‘It that helped me most was Fred.’ Actually, however, we have come to feel that Fred is the antecedent. This point is analyzed similarly in other cases. Therefore, when the relative pronoun is the subject of a verb, as in examples (a) of section 3, this verb do not agrees in number and person with it, but with the noun or pronoun that is brought into prominence (Davidson, 1968, p.607 and Moore, 1966, p. 401). For example, ‘It is partly these things that have made him the strongest man in the Gold Coast.’ It is noted that have made (not has made) is used because things (and therefore the relative that) is plural. ‘Whether it is the schools that have failed the Church, or the Church that has failed the schools, it is certainly high time for both parties to co-operate in reversing the drift.’ ‘It is I that am a slave.’ ‘It's you that are wicked.’

What is more, the word that in sentences of type (d) of section 3, in which the word or group of words that is brought into prominence is adverbial, needs to be taken into consideration. In this case, as far as one can see, that is not a relative pronoun. At all events, that cannot be replaced by who or which, and that must be regarded as a conjunction. On this interpretation, the sentence ‘It was on Monday that they came’ is equivalent to ‘That they came was on Monday’. That is to say, their coming was on Monday. Inevitably, this makes the word it anticipative (anticipating the clause that they came) as well as discriminative. Perhaps, one might say that as regards the form of the sentence, this it is anticipative, but as regards the effective meaning of the sentence, it is discriminative. This is, in the main, Fowler's (1908) view of the matter, as explained under it both in The King's English and in Modern English Usage.

Occasionally, the word that, as used after a discriminative it, can be omitted, e.g. ‘I believe it was John we saw this morning.’ ‘It was on the previous Sunday he arrived there.’ ‘It was then I saw the interiors of the houses of which I have spoken.’

5. From it as a tricky syntactic issue to everyday uses of it

It is agreed that the innuendos, double-talk, and outright confusion that are producible within the English language is incredible. This is not only done with the multiple-meaning word like it but with very intricate use of the facial expression, moods, body language, moods, and emotions. As mentioned on the first page of this essay, there are many nuances and meanings that can be attributed to the great word it. Aside from the highly technical analysis noted above, there are the following examples of everyday use of it in all the intricacies of general communication. This section will be more appealing as it is directly connected with our grasp and real-time usage of the word in everyday really effective communication contexts. Indeed, the deliverance of this word can have multiple consequences and long or short-term reactions from the recipient as well as direct effects on the subject matters. Consider the following examples:

• Speaker in humorous mood, ‘If it gets any bigger, it will burst!’ with reference to a balloon being blown up. The speaker will smile or laugh, and both voice and face will indicate awe and amusement as the balloon becomes larger and larger.

• Derogatory: ‘You’re crazy if you believe it will work!’ This is spoken in a derisive way, and the speaker’s body language is haughty saying ‘I know better than you,’ or ‘You’re a fool compared to me.’

• Explicit: ‘Now this is what it should really look like!’ Informative: ‘I’m certain that it will work very well as a replacement part in the machine.’ The speaker talks with quiet authority, with an attitude expressing he/she is sincere and believes fully in his/her statement.

• Sarcastic: ‘Really?’ And what are you saying it does for you, huh?’ The question is spoken in a harsh and superior manner, exhibiting condescendence (but not as strongly as when the speaker is derogatory.)

• Rude: ‘What the hell is this in front of me? The good money I handed over for you to produce it has been completely wasted!’ The speaker speaks loudly or even shouts and his/her bodily attitude is of anger and aggression.

• Irritation: ‘Why haven’t you done it? Do I have to do it all by myself?’ Voice, face and body language show the person is in a dissatisfied mood, or frame of mind.

Usage of it can be linked to a number of emotional states, for example:

• Excitement: ‘Look at the young lady’s dress!’ isn’t it beautiful?’ The speaker’s face and body indicate excitement, as does the strained voice.

• Enthusiasm: ‘Just look at it go! It’s wonderful. It’s marvelous! It’s a winner!’ Here a high state of excitement is demonstrated, with a loud and vibrant voice suggesting intense interest. The speaker may jump up and down if feeling really enthusiastic.

• Surprise: ‘Well now have you found it?’ That’s very good news! Good for you!” Voice, face, and body language indicate pleased surprise that a missing object has been located.

• Awe: ‘Just look at that sunset! Isn’t it fantastic? Such statements are spoken quietly and with reverence, an awe-stricken individual experiences feelings of a scene happening that is astonishing and breath-taking.

• Sadness: ‘It was a nice funeral, but it’s going to be hard for the family. The children are going to remember it for a long time to come.’ This would be said softly and quietly, with body language respectful and not exhibiting confidence or happiness. The speaker conveys a sense of loss.

• Need: ‘When can we get it? It is needed here right away! Why is it being delayed?’ Voice and body language convey anxiety and urgency. The speaker may be in a state of panic, and/or may be slightly, or very, angry.

• Candor: ‘It’s very nice to be able to meet you again, but why did it take so long?’ The question is spoken half-smiling disbelief of the person being addressed.

• Love: ‘It makes me so happy. Our relationship has made it possible for me to be as happy as I’ve ever been.’ This sentence is spoken tenderly and carefully, looking into the lover’s eyes with adoration and pleasure.

• Feeling guilt: ‘I’m so sorry about it. Probably it was all my fault. It won’t happen again!’ The person is apologetic and displaying sadness related to something he/she has or has not done. The body language and facial expression show remorse and regret.

Obviously, words with a variety of meanings and usages are common in the English language, and frequently body language is used, together with the tone and strength of voice, to make clear a particular meaning; also, the emotion and feelings of the speaker are expressed. This usage of language is well shown with it

In conclusion, if requested to give the meaning of the term it, a person may well state that it is a pronoun standing for an object, concept or idea. It is also used for living things. Furthermore, we way think of it as the neuter equivalent of he or she, and him or her. This concept is correct as far as it goes, but in fact it is a very useful item in the English lexis, particularly in works of literature and everyday conversations. There are three usages of it, in which it is not a pronoun in the normal grammatical sense: 1) expletive it: generally used and associated with time, distance, weather or general situations. This is not a personal pronoun and does not have a meaning that could appear in a dictionary or thesaurus. It is present for a linguistics reason, fundamentally to enable someone to formulate and use certain kinds of statements and questions; 2) anticipative it: in this usage it is related to imaging or postulating what may happen or is likely to occur; besides, the anticipative it, as with the expletive it might be the subject of a verb, the object of a verb or a preposition. 3) discriminative it: here a particular person, thing or activity is made clear as superior or inferior to others.